The Rhodesian Bush War

The War in the Air

It is the mid-1970s in Africa. The small land-locked nation of Rhodesia, sitting northeast of its neighbour South Africa, is economically successful but militarily and politically troubled. It is under international scrutiny, with trade to the country limited. The Rhodesians are engaged in a significant, but often overlooked struggle, couched in the broader Cold War, known today as the Rhodesian Bush War.

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BACKGROUND

The backdrop of the Rhodesian Bush War could arguably go back to the late 19th century, when businessman Cecil J. Rhodes made mining claims in the country and sent a military-style Pioneer Column to occupy them. In 1890, Rhodes negotiated with local leaders for some of the territory rich in gold and other minerals. Two tribes—the Shone and Ndele—were at war during this time.

According to some historians, Rhodes used this conflict to his advantage, and in 1893 he had secured a large portion of land for his mining company. Eventually this region became known as Southern Rhodesia, a British colony. The high altitude gave Rhodesia a cooler temperature than its surroundings, which would still oscillate through warmer periods, something like the Mediterranean. Settlers from Europe preferred the familiar temperature, and the land was good for agriculture.

By 1923 Company rule had come to an end and a new constitution granted representative government to what was almost an entirely white electorate which was staunchly British. There was a government native policy of ‘parallel development’, not unlike that of South Africa at the time.

A rapid rise in the native African population offset the increased European immigration, and by 1965 there were some 228,000 Europeans, 4,847,000 Africans, and 23,000 from other races. However, the white settlers maintained political power in the country. The British had attempted to amalgamate Southern and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland into the so-called Central African Federation, which sparked a militant African nationalism and ultimately fell apart in 1964.

Northern Rhodesia became Zambia, and Nyasaland became Malawi, both independent Black states. Southern Rhodesia remained technically a British colony, but with the Rhodesian African nationalists pressing for independence and Black majority rule. The British government refused independence to Southern Rhodesia with the constitution white Rhodesians wanted. And so, on the 11th of November, 1965, the Southern Rhodesian government issued their Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom and renamed their country as simply ‘Rhodesia’ (later to be the Republic of Rhodesia). The British government responded with economic and diplomatic sanctions, and Rhodesia faced trade embargoes from the UN and other major powers almost immediately. Only a handful of countries are willing to help Rhodesia in the coming conflict: South Africa, Portugal, and, in the 1970s, Israel.

Surprisingly, Rhodesia's economy remains buoyant despite international restrictions, and sanctions failed to stem the flow of arms through friendly countries such as South Africa and Portuguese Mozambique. At the same time, in opposition to the white Rhodesians, African nationalists receive outside help from Russia and China through Black African states like Zambia and Tanzania, states sympathetic to their oppressed ‘brothers’ in the place they called Zimbabwe. And so, from the outset of Rhodesian independence, fighting begins breaking out between Rhodesian security forces and rebel groups. This new conflict is known as the Bush War, a counterinsurgency war on three fronts that would continue until 1980. Rhodesian forces will find themselves outnumbered but demonstrate extreme tenacity and ability to hold out against the enemy. Using limited equipment, small numbers, and intuitive counterinsurgency tactics (or COIN), the Rhodesians are today considered one of the best fighting forces of the 20th century.

When considering Rhodesia's Bush War, the country's borders are critical. On the south, it borders South Africa, a nation sympathetic to Rhodesia’s struggle. But everywhere else are important strongpoints for rebel forces to mount attacks into the country. To the east are low mountains that form the border with Mozambique. To the west is the Kalahari Desert and Botswana. And to the north, there is Zambia and the Zambezi River.

RHODESIAN AIR FORCES

Backing up the ground forces will be the small but efficient Rhodesian Air Force. The Rhodesians fly a number of iconic Commonwealth aircraft, familiar to us in Australia, including Spitfires, Canberras, Hunters, and Vampires, as well as other aircraft like the C-47, Iroquois, Anson, Provost, and a unique but deadly modification of the Cessna Skymaster known as the Lynx, which will become somewhat symbolic of the war.

In 1965, the Rhodesian Air Force sits at 70 aircraft strong. South of the Sahara, at this time, it is outdone only by the South African Air Force.

WAR IN TWO PHASES

There are two phases to the bush war. The first phase—from 1965 to 1972—is characterised by skirmishes. This period sees little air action; however, it does forge a number of strong fighting units on the ground, the two most elite among them being the Selous Scouts and Rhodesian SAS, who had broken away from British SAS C Squadron when independence was declared.

Unlike the overly discriminatory image of Rhodesia being broadcast overseas, when the conflict kicks off, many native Africans join these elite units and standard forces, including rebels who have switched sides, who become effective guerrilla fighters.

The second phase of the war—from 1972 to 1980—would see the war expand into larger-scale engagements, employing all manner of weaponry in the sky and on the ground.

WAR BEGINS

The year is 1965. Soon following the declaration of independence, small fights begin breaking out across the country. The rebels form two major factions, which roughly correspond to the original two tribes that occupied the region. The first is the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army—or ZANLA, the military arm of the Zimbabwe African National Union. They are backed by the Chinese and use small roaming bands to infiltrate and mount attacks. The other is the Zimbabwe Peoples Liberation Army—or ZIPRA, the military arm of the Zimbabwe African People’s Union. Backed by the Soviets, they are far more advanced; they have mechanised units and are also taught superior long-term war strategies, including how to effectively employ attrition tactics militarily and politically.

ZIPRA hopes that ZANLA will wear out the Rhodesians before sending mechanised units in force; however, they lack the superior small guerrilla tactics of ZANLA. Both are capable forces in their own distinct way.

The first shots of the war ring out in April 1966; a ZANLA group, en route to attack Kariba, is eliminated, and then in May a second incursion, tasked with sabotaging the Beira-Umtali pipeline, liberating Sithole (a prominent nationalist leader in detention), and attacking white farmers, was also eliminated (but not before a white couple had been murdered).

At this stage, the rebels only operate from the north; Portugal still controls Mozambique and the western regions are quiet. Rhodesian ground and air forces have the advantage; the northern border is mostly flat, and rebels must simply be kept back beyond the Zambezi River to secure the region.

As much as Rhodesia seems to have the upper hand in this first phase of the Bush War, rebels are regrouping and retraining under the expert tactical advice from Chinese, Soviet, and Angolan operators. Soon Cuba also will scale up a military and revolutionary presence on the continent.

PHASE TWO BEGINS

The early 1970s marks phase two of the Rhodesian Bush War.

The black nationalist groups continue guerrilla activity from bases in Zambia and Mozambique. In Mozambique, the Portuguese forces have essentially lost control of the country: the liberation movement, FRELIMO, controls large portions of Mozambique, and they partner with ZANLA to begin operations against Rhodesia, establishing two fronts: ZANLA in the east and ZIPRA in the north. In the west, South African security forces pull back under international pressure. Botswana is left open as a staging post for rebels.

By 1971 Rhodesian forces must cover three fronts. At this point, rebels are primarily attacking white farmers in random, uncoordinated attacks, but there is evidence that they are preparing for more significant assaults to weaken the military.

During these formative stages, the Rhodesians create Fireforce tactics. Fireforce personnel would be heavily armed ‘sticks’ of 4 men who could be dropped into a hot zone at low level to eliminate enemy forces. Typically, a Fireforce operation would involve four Alouette IIIs, one of which had the commander and orbited over the operational area, a Dakota that carried five Sticks, and a light attack aircraft, a Reims-Cessna FTB 337G, known as the ‘Lynx.’.

MAJOR OPERATION 1976

The Air Force plans one of the first large-scale joint operations in November 1976, utilising both ground troops and rotary wing and fixed-wing elements. A large enemy camp—8,000 strong—is identified near the central Mozambique town of Chimoio as well as Tembue in the north. A plan is drawn up, and DC-8s are sent in regularly to desensitise the local militia to the sound of aircraft flying over. The plan—Operation Dingo—aims to paradrop Rhodesian Light Infantry and SAS near the base, creating blocking positions on two sides of the camp. Meanwhile, 40 helicopters will drop troops in, blocking a third side. Attack choppers will then show up at a distance and block off the only escapee’s route. This will coincide with the first airstrikes.

The operation springs into action. A DC-8 flies out at low altitude over the base. The rebels—thinking it’s an incoming attack—hunker down in their trenches. The aircraft passes. The rebels then relax their defences, assume it was simply an airliner, and come out of their trenches.

Soon after, at 0800 hours, Hunters and other strike aircraft, including Vampires and Canberras, head in. The rebels had returned to their posts by this time. The aircraft release weapons as they run in. The bombs hit their targets, blowing up a number of buildings and forcing the insurgents out of the camp.

At the same time, the transport and attack helicopters move into blocking positions, while the C-47s begin dropping paratroopers. The strike aircraft stay on station, drawing the AAA fire away from the troop transports. The rebels continue to flee, running straight into the blocking positions as planned.

The forces open fire. It is a complete success, with far bigger outcomes then the Rhodesians had expected. A similar attack was executed two days later at Tembue. The Rhodesian government estimates between 1,200 and 3,000 enemies killed, and the bases, with huge supplies of weapons, are destroyed. The only losses were SAS soldier F.J. Nel, and a Rhodesian Vampire pilot, Flight Lieutenant Phillip Haigh who died in a crash landing after his aging Vampire FB.52 (with no ejection seat), had been hit by FRELIMO anti-aircraft fire at the Vanduzi cross-roads when returning from the Chimoio attack.

NOVEMBER 1977

November 1977. Smaller joint operations are now taking place more regularly, with collaborations between the army, SAS and Air Force.

A new mission comes into focus. The plan is simple; attack ZANLA and FRELIMO staging posts in Mozambique, in order to quell the chaos they are causing on the border.

A 15-man SAS team is deployed to the region. They start planting mines along designated routes that ZANLA and FRELIMO use to ferry supplies around Mozambique. The operation encounters trouble halfway through. Forward elements of the squad report 400 enemy troops. Outnumbered over 20 to 1, the SAS begin firing. Mobile AA guns roll in and begin firing through the bush at the SAS team. Airstrikes are called in to bomb the area. Strike aircraft are already in the air, and upon the call, begin heading to the location. The SAS are holding out, slowly pulling back as the enemy encroaches upon all sides.

The aircraft roll in, dropping bombs across the terrain. Their effectiveness is noted by the troops on the ground. Militia fire has died down, and the troops retreat to an exfiltration point.

In a technical sense, operations such as this are highly successful. The Rhodesians see few losses and achieve most of their goals. Nevertheless, this is turning into a war of attrition, and both sides know it. ZANLA, ZIPRA, and most other nationalist militias in the region take a page out of the Viet Cong playbook. They understand that, just as with the Americans in Vietnam, the Rhodesians and South Africans may have a technological advantage, but they lack several other important factors. Just like the VC, they understand the power of political leverage—especially on the international stage—and, more importantly, how to effectively break morale, draw out the fight, and exhaust their enemy in a war of attrition, just as they had been taught by the Soviets.

OPERATION GATLING 1978

On October 19^th, 1978, in the midst of escalating conflict, the Rhodesians execute Operation Gatling to strike deep into Zambia. North of the Zambian capital of Lusaka is a well-known militia training base - Westlands Farm. It was previously owned by white farmers, before ZIPRA forces had turned it into both a headquarters and training facility. Its existence is no secret, however ZIPRA believe the Rhodesians will never dare to strike so far into Zambian territory. However, the Rhodesians are particularly motivated to send a strong message after the downing of a civilian airliner.

On September 3^rd, 1978, a Rhodesian airlines flight - flight 825 - had been heading towards Salisbury. Clearly marked in civilian colours, it was obviously a passenger airline. ZIPRA forces saw the aircraft, and using a Soviet-made Strela-2 surface-to-air infrared homing missile, shot it down, creating huge controversy. Of the 52 passengers, 18 people had survived the crash. Five went off to find water, while the other thirteen stayed at the crash site. ZIPRA forces then arrived. Three survivors quickly hid, while the others stayed by the aircraft. The ZIPRA soldiers approached, promising help was on its way. They then looted the ten survivors, herding them together, and then cut them down with automatic weapons fire.

The day after the incident, ZIPRA leader Joshua Nkomo was interviewed by the BBC, and claimed responsibility for shooting down the aircraft. Rhodesian leader Ian Smith had been in promising talks with Nkomo, but was now off the table. Smith enacts martial law over parts of Rhodesia, and ethnic tensions rise, although many black Rhodesians side with the government, viewing the incident as a terrorist act.

Operation Gatling will send a message. Roughly 4000 militia infantrymen are estimated to be at Westlands Farm, along with ZIPRA superiors and possibly foreign military operators. The mission is greenlit, and on the morning of October 19^th, the three stage plan springs into action.

All three stages will take place in rapid succession. The first stage will be a strike by the Rhodesian Air Force against Westlands itself, first by strike aircraft, and then by attack choppers. The second stage - which will commence at the same time - will be a surprise assault by SAS against the Mkushi base - 125km northeast of Lusaka. Phase three would be a raid by the Rhodesian Light Infantry against another camp 15 kilometres north of Lusaka, referred to as CGT-2.

Taking off, groups of Canberras and Hunters head towards Lusaka. The Canberras are routed to avoid radar coverage, flying at low altitude. Leading the flight is Squadron Leader Chris Dixon - Green Leader. Nearing the farm, he contacts the tower at Lusaka airport, identifying himself, and warning the Zambians to not interfere. He announces that they are now taking control of the airspace to hunt down Rhodesian dissidents, and that a flight of Hawker Hunters is now circling the airport, with orders to shoot down any Zambian fighter that attempts to take off.

The Zambian controllers cooperate immediately, with no resistance, and temporarily halt all air activity. Rhodesian forces simultaneously begin using the Rufunsu airstrip as a forward base for the mission.

The strike aircraft move in, completely catching the militia off guard. They are on target, hitting buildings and infrastructure across the camp. They release all their munitions, and then the helicopter gunships move in. These K-Car helicopters are prone to ground fire, but at high risk they roll in over the base, strafing targets of opportunity. One helicopter is hit, the pilot struck in the leg, crashing and wounding two people.

Meanwhile, the SAS and light infantry see success at their designated targets.

The helicopters expend their ammo and head back to the forward base. The operation will technically continue until the 21^st, at which time the Rhodesians report a very numerically successful operation; despite losing four men, the Rhodesian joint force believes they have killed over 1500 militia, wounded over 1300, caused another 200 to go missing, captured a ZIPRA logistics officer, and killed a number of Cuban operators who were training men at the different camps.

This operation is, however, highly controversial due to both its location, and the several civilians killed in the crossfire. Nevertheless, it was a strong response to ZIPRA’s actions against flight 825. Green Leader becomes an icon in Rhodesia, since his radio chatter had been broadcast at home, and still to this day, Operation Gatling and the term Green Leader remain symbolic of the Bush War for many former Rhodesians.

OPERATION VANITY

Operation Vanity was motivated by the downing of a second Air Rhodesia Flight, flight number 827, by ZIPRA on the 12^th of February 1979. Unlike the downed flight 825 the previous year, none of the 59 passengers survived. Like the 825 incident, ZIPRA forces used a shoulder-launched SA-7 missile to down the airliner in what was an assassination attempt on Rhodesian Security Forces Commander General Peter Walls. However, Walls and his wife were on a flight 15 minutes behind the downed aircraft. His flight evaded any missiles and landed safely at Salisbury.

This operation was a bombing raid against a ZIPRA training camp near Luso, in Angola. Four Canberra bombers, accompanied secretly by three South African Air Force Canberras, take off around 06:30 hours on the 26^th of February, 1979, from the Victoria Falls airfield. Heading northwest, the bombers are accompanied by a Dakota command and control aircraft and two Hawker Hunter fighters. The flight headed over Zambia and then into Angola, avoiding any air defence radars, before turning towards the Benguela Railway west of Luso which followed east toward the target.

The Canberra bombers form up into two groups before hitting the target, dropping to a height of 300 feet. Six of the Canberras drop their Alpha bombs (a type of cluster bomb) and the seventh drop five of its six 1,000 pound bombs onto the rows of bungalows below. There is no anti-aircraft return fire. The pilots think the camp is empty, however photographs from the South African Air Force bombers showed the camp occupied and with anti-aircraft guns.

OPERATION URIC

It is now September 1979. Command has received new intel, indicating a major tactical move by the enemy is in play. Robert Mugabe and Sebastiao Mabote have come to an agreement; FRELIMO forces will deploy alongside ZANLA to break Rhodesian lines of defence. 1000 new FRELIMO troops have arrived in the region, having just completed a new Soviet training program. Their goal is to take and hold key areas of southeast Rhodesia, with the FRELIMO command stationed at a headquarters in Mapai.

This disturbing information has come to Rhodesian intelligence after a FRELIMO soldier is captured. The attack will threaten Rhodesia’s essential rail link with South Africa, the Rutenga-Beitbridge, and will be launched from Gaza province. 11000 ZANLA troops have already been deployed in Mozambique.

In response, a new joint operation is planned, utilising the air force and army, with aid from the SAAF. The goal is to destroy ZANLA and Frelimo lines all the way back to Aldeia De Barragem—90 kilometres northwest of Maputo and 200 kilometres from Rhodesia itself. Once in, several bridges, roads, irrigation, and crossings over an essential dam will be destroyed, cutting off water, communication, and supply lines.

The Air Force will play an important role. Air strikes are planned for key installations in Mapai, Maxaila, and Barragem in a bid to drive out insurgents from their bases. Once scattered from their bases, Rhodesian troops will then insert via helicopter and blow up the enemy’s headquarters at Mapai and cut off rear support for the invasion force in Gaza province, forcing the insurgents into the open plains of the north. Meanwhile, a modified C-47 (named ‘Warthog’) will provide electronic intelligence and AEW type of support, while a second C-47 will act as the command-and-control aircraft.

The Air Force will utilise a number of aircraft. Lynx will play an important role, both as forward observation and suppression. Hunters, Canberras, and other strike aircraft will be on standby when needed once the forces are on the ground. Iroquois will also be used, referred to as Cheetahs by the Rhodesians.

With logistics worked out, the operation is ready for a green light. Codenamed Operation Uric, 360 troops will be used to take the enemy bases. Iroquois will transport 180 troops to the staging base southeast of Chigubu, referred to as Oscar Bravo, from their airfield at Chipinda Pools airbase, or Oscar Alpha. D-Day has been scheduled to begin at 0700 hours, September 2^nd 1979.

Midday, September 1^st. Rhodesian Iroquois head out on recon to scout the area. A strange mist-like rain, looking rather like fog, covers a lot of the terrain and the operational area is not looking favourable. The Rhodesians know this strange weather as ‘guti’. This is reported back to HQ; decisions must be made in light of the reduced visibility. Regardless, the ferrying of troops has begun. FRELIMO scout units report helicopter movement at Maxaila, relaying this information to their Mapai HQ. FRELIMO command orders a unit of troops to do a sweep and sends a second unit out to Chigubo to do likewise. Little do the militia realise that Rhodesian electronic intelligence operators are listening in, testing reaction times as troops are ferried to Oscar Bravo.

As the day nears its end, the rain still hasn’t cleared; the decision is made to push the operation back three days, to September 5^th.

The following day, September 2^nd, Iroquois continue ferrying troops and supplies, and the day is mostly uneventful. Rhodesian Light Infantry begin laying mines. That evening, command experiences a strange electronic jamming on their network, but little else.

September 3, command had begun intercepting radio chatter from Maxaila to Mapai, reporting Rhodesian units being ferried in the direction of Chipimbi. Another intercept from Pafuri reports helicopters near Rio Wenezi. A detachment from Pafuri fires on a Light Infantry mine-laying team at Salene. A Lynx airstrike is called in, swiftly silencing the enemy. FRELIMO knows something is up, and there is no going back. That afternoon, the minelaying team finishes up. At 16:15 a troubling report comes through from the command aircraft; SAM radars are now being picked up near Malyernia and Mapai. Intercepts also report Mapai going on high alert; they know Rhodesian troops are planning something. Rhodesian command reconfirms D-Day as September 5th; the operation must go ahead.

The operation will be a simple one for the Air Force. Four hunters are to fly into Barragem, to bomb enemy positions, escorted by two Lynx with a further two Hunters on standby. Enemy positions are to be struck with ‘golf bombs’, a Rhodesian invention, like a fragmentation bomb. Two C47s with paratroopers will be on standby if reinforcements are needed on the ground. Aircraft would be on call until 15:30, with all troops hopefully back by 17:00. The day after would focus on Mapai: Six Hunters and six Canberras would strike the base with bombs, while two Lynx and two further Hunters would strike targets of opportunity and cause chaos. After the depletion of supplies they will head back to re-arm and refuel. Twelve Pumas and six Cheetahs (or Iroquois) would then drop in the troops. After resupply the aircraft will head out for a second attack in an attempt to drive out the enemy from their base.

The sun dawns, it is D-Day, September 5^th, 1979. Orders are coming through indicating that the plan will go ahead. Operation Uric is now in effect. Preparation is underway at Oscar Alpha, as helicopters start up beside the Chipinda Pools airstrip. Action will start sooner than expected: 25 Mozambique soldiers have come across the activity and are slowly creeping up on the base. But by chance, a Rhodesian Light Infantry mine-laying team has spotted them and followed. They open fire, killing 23 and wounding another, yet one escapes, eventually raising the alarm.

Take-off is delayed, but eventually all troops are onboard: conveniently in time to watch the first strike. The four Hunters roll in, bombing defensive positions, buildings and other targets. A surprisingly strong barrage of AA fire reaches into the sky. The helicopters drop off their troops as two Lynx aircraft arrive on station to begin directing the 48 SAS soldiers on the ground.

The choppers pull back, and the Air Force come in, creating chaos on the ground. Things are looking good for the Rhodesians: the SAS capture two 23mm AA guns and turn them loose on the FRELIMO soldiers. Then one SAS soldier is hit. Casualty evacuation is requested. Flight Lieutenant Dick Paxton heads in but has been misdirected. He suddenly realises he is over a FRELIMO position and pulls out of the way, but an RPG is launched and hits his main rotor. The chopper falls out of the sky, crashing and killing technician Alexander Wesson. The Iroquois bursts into flames: Paxton is stuck in the cockpit with a broken arm, surrounded by flames and insurgents closing in. An SAS Sargeant, Flash Smyth, sees this and manages to get to the chopper, saving Paxton.

In other parts of the battlespace troops see some success. Militia at Maoba are reporting aircraft overflying and causing chaos, whilst Rhodesian troops slowly knock out their respective bridges and link points at 16:30 (a task which took 5 hours). They pull out by chopper, returning back to base by 18:00

From 20:00 to 21:00 FRELIMO troops across the region report their losses and begin calling for more reinforcements and AA guns.

The day was long and chaotic. Worrying for the Rhodesian Air Force was the helicopter and technician lost, and news from the electronic intelligence aircraft of enemy radar between Mapai and Malvernia.

September 6^th, 06:35 hours.

The first Hunters move in, striking the base at Mapai. Despite the previous day’s engagements, these airstrikes still catch the defenders completely off guard. The aircraft destroy an armoury as well as a comms centre and command bunker, in which several Soviet advisors had been staying. The Hunters fly a circuit and return some minutes later for a second pass. This time the militia are ready; they greet the bombers with 20mm AA fire. The aircraft fly over, again with bombs on target, destroying an AA gun, fuel depot, and most importantly a radar emplacement, which had previously had a good line of sight over the flat terrain towards Rhodesia. With this base in chaos the troop-carrying helicopters head on in.

A formation of Iroquois, aided by a group of South African Pumas, are heading towards Mapai carrying the troops. The day has just begun, and already one of the helicopters is experiencing engine vibrations and has to pull out and land, while the rest push forward. En route to their drop point, the helicopters unknowingly fly over a large but inconspicuous enemy camp hidden in the bush. Suddenly disaster strikes; one of the Pumas (Puma 164) sees an RPG-7 fired from the ground. In a split second, the missile flies through the rear sliding door into the cabin, exploding right behind the pilot’s seat. All 14 people on board are killed, and the Puma spirals down, exploding into the ground.

An emergency call is put out, and the coordinates marked. One of the crews made an attempt to retrieve bodies, but this proved impossible. The rest of the helicopters push on, landing at their designated landing zones and releasing their troops. The choppers immediately head back to base to refuel.

For troops on the ground, fighting breaks out soon after landing. Their advance towards Mapai is slowing. Despite being caught off guard, the militia are now organising mortars and further AA coverage. Mortar strikes make advancing risky, even though it is unclear if the militia know exactly where they are. Thus, airstrikes are called in. Before long, strike aircraft are on station. One aircraft - possibly a Hunter - dives down, hitting three AA guns. On his way out, the aircraft sees AA fire from multiple random positions in the bush.

The troops have taken this opportunity to push up nearer to the base. The mortars and gunfire are momentarily silent. Beyond the sandalwood is the base. Before reaching the woods, they find a well disguised trench network, albeit abandoned. Pushing into the woods, the troops fan out and move slowly. They notice a camouflaged spotter platform in a tree; one of the troops takes the shot, and several troops move over to inspect the body. To their surprise, he is wearing completely new gear, including his binoculars and gun, indicating new shipments of supplies were reaching ZANLA.

Finally, the troops can see the base, appearing abandoned. A small group moves forward, discovering a complex zig-zag trench network, possibly built by the Soviets, extending over a kilometre towards the base. One of the soldiers notices a bobbing head in one of the trenches. Suddenly, both sides open fire; the base is not abandoned as expected, and heavy fire is now being taken.

Mortars are launched again, along with dozens of small arms and recoilless rifles. Some of the most hardened veterans amongst the troops later recall that this was the most intense fighting they had experienced. The entire force is now pinned down, either in the trenches or along the treeline.

FRELIMO troops at the base light the dry grass on fire. In the hot daylight it spreads quickly, forcing the Rhodesians to reposition. They notice militia moving into a trench network to their left flank, attempting to move behind them. The Rhodesians cannot effectively fire back as two militia MG positions have them pinned down and suppressed. This situation continues for a further ten minutes. Finally, Rhodesian mortar crews have set up further back and open up on the enemy.

A 60mm smoke shell marks the position for another flight of strike aircraft. They move in – again, likely Hunters - and strafe the base with guns and rockets. However, there is little effect. AA guns continue to spray the sky with lead.

The Rhodesians are forced into the trenches, and an intense, World War 1-style, close quarters fighting ensues, with troops encountering each other at point blank in the high cut trenches. The SAS units push up firsts, but suddenly the situation turns dire; the zigzag trenches wrap around in connecting patterns, and enemies begin creeping up from behind. Surrounded, the SAS call out for the enemy to surrender, only to receive curses in Portuguese in return. The lead unit is focused forward, toward oncoming gunfire. Turning around, they see three men behind them. One SAS man opens fire. The three militia duck around a corner, then one pops out again, with an RPG in hand. The SAS take cover, the rocket narrowly missing, kicking up dust everywhere.

Overhead, a Lynx is observing the battle. Directing from this observation point is Lieutenant Dave Padbury. Rhodesian hopes had been high going into this mission, but now mounting casualties, the late hour, and the seeming unwillingness of the militia to compromise leads the commanders to consider a tactical withdrawal. From overhead, the picture is clear; the troops are not advancing as expected. In contact with those on the ground, it is obvious that no one feels comfortable continuing the fight into the night, as they are literally surrounded. Padbury, however, believes that pulling out now would be the wrong choice, and that enemy morale would soon expire. Command makes the call; all troops are to withdraw back. The Lynx observers reluctantly relay this to the units on the ground. The SAS begin pulling back through the trenches.

Fighting is heavy, enemy suppressive fire is even slowing the withdrawal. With the sun low on the horizon, another strike package is ordered. A group of Canberras roll in over at 20,000 feet, dropping bombs across a wide target area of Mapai, including the trench network.

The fire slowly dies down as the troops pull out. Padbury is proven correct; This airstrike breaks the nerve of the militia, and they begin evacuating from the trenches en masse. The Canberras release their full payload, throwing the enemy into disarray, forcing a two day withdrawal from the location.

After a slow eight mile walk back to the landing zone, the Rhodesian troops are picked up by chopper and flown back to base. The enemy, however, doesn’t let up; flying low and fast, the helicopters manage to avoid tracers and rockets that are seen flying up from random positions in the bush. Fortunately, no further casualties are recorded.

Back at base, the mission is declared a failure, a helicopter and 17 troops have been killed, one of the worst days in the history of the Rhodesian military. Despite a strong will, good training, and superb employment of the limited resources available, the odds were against Rhodesia. Fears were mounting that if the situation became any more politically charged, Tanzania may join with the rebels. If this had occurred, MiGs almost certainly would have been employed, turning the situation against the Rhodesian Air Force.

The Air Force itself was nearing a breaking point. The old Canberras were kept well by engineers, but were so old, and so far past their rated lifespan that they were limited to 270 knots at altitude, due to fears of airframe failure. The Hunters were also cumbersome, requiring long 3-hour turnarounds between sorties.

Because of this, during the later moments of the conflict, small prop aircraft would ironically be given a chance to shine. Notably the Lynx, a heavily modified derivative of the O-2 used in Vietnam. Small, easy to operate, with a quick turnaround speed, the Lynx could lay down suppressive fire using rockets and guns.

Apart from the later Operation Miracle, Operation Uric would mark the last major engagement for the Rhodesian armed forces.

END OF THE CONFLICT

A few other engagements would take place before the end of the Rhodesian Bush War. For example, in April 1979, C-47s were used to drop paratroops to capture ZANLA leaders and destroy a base in Mozambique. Hunters and Canberra’s drop bombs and troops sweep the area.

Despite another success on the battlefield, the Rhodesians are feeling the cost of this seemingly never-ending war of attrition. The population is growing tired of the fighting, and the militia—despite suffering thousands of casualties—are growing in size. By 1979, Joshua Nkomo is preparing ZIPRA for a conventional invasion, while ZANLA would continue insurgency warfare across the region. The Rhodesian military has its doubts about how successful the rebels can be in a direct confrontation, but nevertheless they are already proving unshakeable in their resolve.

The rebels understand that in many ways they are already winning, and a conventional war may not even be necessary. One of the greatest strategic and political successes ZANLA and ZIPRA have achieved thus far is a fear campaign. Thanks to their unwavering resolve, as well as their willingness to target farmers and other civilians, many white Rhodesians are beginning to leave. This makes the situation in Rhodesia even worse; the white Rhodesian population is increasingly demoralised as they see others flee the country, while the military is now losing its potential fighting force.

Rhodesian military tacticians knew they could not sustain such a war. Hope was now on a political resolution. A year earlier, the so-called Internal Settlement agreement was signed, between Rhodesian and moderate African nationalist leaders. The settlement would attempt to appease both sides; moderate African nationalists could run for office and the country would be renamed Zimbabwe-Rhodesia, while the white population was assured that whites would retain about 1/3^rd of the parliamentary seats, as well as civil services, police, judiciary, and so forth.

In the 1979 general election, native Africans Bishop Abel Muzorewa and Josiah Zion Gumede become Prime Minister and President respectively.

However, this doesn’t bring peace; Nkomo and Robert Mugabe, with their ZIPRA and ZANLA forces, reject the settlement, calling it a puppet government. The insurgents vow to continue fighting until victory is achieved.

In late 1979, the British would step in. Although not officially recognising Rhodesia, they pushed for peace negotiations, and what followed was the Lancaster House Agreement. Mugabe and Nkomo agreed to a ceasefire, so long as they could participate in the next elections. It was agreed. A leadership change was also announced; Rhodesia would come under temporary British rule until the next elections had taken place, temporarily taking on the name of Southern Rhodesia once again. On December 12^th, the Governor Designate arrived from England, after the Rhodesian government had voted itself out of power in parliament, and on December 21 a ceasefire was announced. At this point, the British, along with other commonwealth nations including Australia, send a peacekeeping force to the country.

In 1980 the elections would be held. In the run up, Mugabe was accused of voter intimidation using his forces, who were also accused of not remaining in their designated guerrilla assembly points. Nevertheless, Mugabe garnered huge support and emerged victorious with 63% of the vote. Soon after, the country was renamed Zimbabwe and was internationally recognised.

CONCLUSION

The story of Rhodesia ends with the formation of Zimbabwe. Unfortunately for Zimbabwe, struggles would continue. Thanks to Mugabe’s Marxist-Leninist economic policies, in the years that followed, Zimbabwe would suffer some of the worst inflation in the world: the Zimbabwean dollar replaced the Rhodesian dollar at parity, but soon the currency was losing half its value every 24 hours. Things would continue downward, with accusations of Mugabe rigging elections, he himself was eventually overthrown.

The sad story of Rhodesia and Zimbabwe continues today, with an unstable economy and struggling sociopolitical situation. Perhaps with careful reforms early on, Rhodesia could have integrated the natives properly into their culture and prevented disaster.

But what is for certain is that the Rhodesians were a serious fighting force. Their small Air Force with technologically outdated equipment proved extremely effective. Just like South Africa in the 1980s, Rhodesia in the 1970s provides us with case examples of how to overcome the limitations of a small fighting force through ingenuity, precision, creativity, guerilla tactics, sweat, tears, and teamwork.

The Rhodesian Bush War

In the third episode of our "First Strike" series, we dive into the aerial dimension of the Rhodesian Bush War—a brutal and complex conflict from 1965 to 1980, where a small, isolated nation faced overwhelming odds. From daring cross-border raids to innovative Fireforce tactics, we explore how the Rhodesian Air Force, flying aging but effective aircraft like the Lynx, Hunter, and Canberra, played a pivotal role in counterinsurgency operations against Soviet- and Chinese-backed guerrillas. Witness the tactics, operations, and outcomes of a war fought with ingenuity in the skies above Africa. CONTENTS 00:00 Introduction 00:50 Background 04:48 Rhodesian Air Forces 05:24 War in Two Phases 06:19 War Begins - 1965 08:18 Phase Two - 1971 10:02 Major Ops 1976 12:31 November 1977 14:23 Operation Gatling 1978 19:20 Operation Vanity 1979 21:11 Operation Uric 1979 - detailed 36:54 Uric aftermath 38:16 End of conflict 41:48 Conclusion